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Hydraulic fracturing - Wikipedia. Induced hydraulic fracturing.

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Schematic depiction of hydraulic fracturing for shale gas. Process type. Mechanical. Industrial sector(s)Mining. Main technologies or sub- processes.

Fluid pressure. Product(s)Natural gas, petroleum. Inventor. Floyd Farris, Joseph B. Clark (Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation)Year of invention. Hydraulic fracturing (also fracking, fraccing, frac'ing, hydrofracturing or hydrofracking) is a well stimulation technique in which rock is fractured by a pressurized liquid.

The process involves the high- pressure injection of 'fracking fluid' (primarily water, containing sand or other proppants suspended with the aid of thickening agents) into a wellbore to create cracks in the deep- rock formations through which natural gas, petroleum, and brine will flow more freely. When the hydraulic pressure is removed from the well, small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppants (either sand or aluminium oxide) hold the fractures open.[1]Hydraulic fracturing began as an experiment in 1. As of 2. 01. 2, 2. U. S.[2][3] Such treatment is generally necessary to achieve adequate flow rates in shale gas, tight gas, tight oil, and coal seam gas wells.[4] Some hydraulic fractures can form naturally in certain veins or dikes.[5]Hydraulic fracturing is highly controversial in many countries. Its proponents advocate the economic benefits of more extensively accessible hydrocarbons.[6][7]Opponents argue that these are outweighed by the potential environmental impacts, which include risks of ground and surface water contamination, air and noise pollution, and the triggering of earthquakes, along with the consequential hazards to public health and the environment.[8][9]Increases in seismic activity following hydraulic fracturing along dormant or previously unknown faults are sometimes caused by the deep- injection disposal of hydraulic fracturing flowback (a byproduct of hydraulically fractured wells),[1. For these reasons, hydraulic fracturing is under international scrutiny, restricted in some countries, and banned altogether in others.[1.

The European Union is drafting regulations that would permit the controlled application of hydraulic fracturing.[1. Geology[edit]. A fracturing operation in progress. Mechanics[edit]Fracturing rocks at great depth frequently becomes suppressed by pressure due to the weight of the overlying rock strata and the cementation of the formation. This suppression process is particularly significant in "tensile" (Mode 1) fractures which require the walls of the fracture to move against this pressure. Fracturing occurs when effective stress is overcome by the pressure of fluids within the rock. The minimum principal stress becomes tensile and exceeds the tensile strength of the material.[1.

Fractures formed in this way are generally oriented in a plane perpendicular to the minimum principal stress, and for this reason, hydraulic fractures in well bores can be used to determine the orientation of stresses.[1. In natural examples, such as dikes or vein- filled fractures, the orientations can be used to infer past states of stress.[1. Most mineral vein systems are a result of repeated natural fracturing during periods of relatively high pore fluid pressure.

The impact of high pore fluid pressure on the formation process of mineral vein systems is particularly evident in "crack- seal" veins, where the vein material is part of a series of discrete fracturing events, and extra vein material is deposited on each occasion.[2. One example of long- term repeated natural fracturing is in the effects of seismic activity. Stress levels rise and fall episodically, and earthquakes can cause large volumes of connate water to be expelled from fluid- filled fractures.

This process is referred to as "seismic pumping".[2. Minor intrusions in the upper part of the crust, such as dikes, propagate in the form of fluid- filled cracks. In such cases, the fluid is magma. In sedimentary rocks with a significant water content, fluid at fracture tip will be steam.[2. History[edit]Precursors[edit]Fracturing as a method to stimulate shallow, hard rock oil wells dates back to the 1.

Dynamite or nitroglycerin detonations were used to increase oil and natural gas production from petroleum bearing formations. On 2. 5 April 1. 86. US Civil War veteran Col.

Edward A. L. Roberts received a patent for an "exploding torpedo".[2. It was employed in Pennsylvania, New York, Kentucky, and West Virginia using liquid and also, later, solidified nitroglycerin. Later still the same method was applied to water and gas wells. Stimulation of wells with acid, instead of explosive fluids, was introduced in the 1. Due to acid etching, fractures would not close completely resulting in further productivity increase.[2.

Oil and gas wells[edit]The relationship between well performance and treatment pressures was studied by Floyd Farris of Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation. This study was the basis of the first hydraulic fracturing experiment, conducted in 1. Hugoton gas field in Grant County of southwestern Kansas by Stanolind.[4][2. For the well treatment, 1,0. US gallons (3,8. 00 l; 8.

Arkansas River was injected into the gas- producing limestone formation at 2,4. The experiment was not very successful as deliverability of the well did not change appreciably. The process was further described by J. B. Clark of Stanolind in his paper published in 1.

A patent on this process was issued in 1. Halliburton Oil Well Cementing Company.

On 1. 7 March 1. 94. Halliburton performed the first two commercial hydraulic fracturing treatments in Stephens County, Oklahoma, and Archer County, Texas.[2. Doctor Who Episode Synopsis Season 9.

Since then, hydraulic fracturing has been used to stimulate approximately one million oil and gas wells[2. In contrast with large- scale hydraulic fracturing used in low- permeability formations, small hydraulic fracturing treatments are commonly used in high- permeability formations to remedy "skin damage", a low- permeability zone that sometimes forms at the rock- borehole interface. In such cases the fracturing may extend only a few feet from the borehole.[2. In the Soviet Union, the first hydraulic proppant fracturing was carried out in 1. Other countries in Europe and Northern Africa subsequently employed hydraulic fracturing techniques including Norway, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria, France, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Tunisia, and Algeria.[2. Massive fracturing[edit].

Well head where fluids are injected into the ground. Well head after all the hydraulic fracturing equipment has been taken off location. Massive hydraulic fracturing (also known as high- volume hydraulic fracturing) is a technique first applied by Pan American Petroleum in Stephens County, Oklahoma, USA in 1. The definition of massive hydraulic fracturing varies, but generally refers to treatments injecting over 1. American geologists gradually became aware that there were huge volumes of gas- saturated sandstones with permeability too low (generally less than 0.

Starting in 1. 97. San Juan Basin, Denver Basin,[3. Piceance Basin,[3.

Green River Basin, and in other hard rock formations of the western US. Other tight sandstone wells in the US made economically viable by massive hydraulic fracturing were in the Clinton- Medina Sandstone (Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York), and Cotton Valley Sandstone (Texas and Louisiana).[2. Massive hydraulic fracturing quickly spread in the late 1. Canada, Rotliegend and Carboniferous gas- bearing sandstones in Germany, Netherlands (onshore and offshore gas fields), and the United Kingdom in the North Sea.[2. Horizontal oil or gas wells were unusual until the late 1.

Then, operators in Texas began completing thousands of oil wells by drilling horizontally in the Austin Chalk, and giving massive slickwater hydraulic fracturing treatments to the wellbores. Horizontal wells proved much more effective than vertical wells in producing oil from tight chalk; [3. Hydraulic fracturing of shales goes back at least to 1.